Introduction :
The discourse on modernity which emphasises that human beings are geared towards creating a society based on the tenets of super speciality, objective knowledge, capitalistic drive, technical efficiency, quick results and competitive spirit leaves little space for the artistic growth. More so art is seen as antithetical in the contemporary times. It is termed as traditional, old-fashioned and highly subjective. It is also seen as a part of an elitist section of the society and not catering to the masses reducing it to be popular only amongst a selective few who are considered to be gifted with artistic sensibilities.
Art is interpreted as some kind of a luxury as against the day-to-day needs of a human being which have to be looked after first. This existential thought limits a person to strive towards acquiring a secured life (food, shelter, security), and leaves no space for him to indulge in ‘higher’ forms of aesthetic expression.
Following this line of thought the present day education system is focussed on preparing students for a highly competitive world which is structured around market driven economy. Curriculum is compartmentalised as sciences, commerce and humanities leaving no space for art education. There are hardly any schools which incorporate art education as a part of basic education system. By bracketing art forms into extra-curricular activities they are doing a lip-service to the idea of giving a child a holistic education.
This paper questions the idea of education in a child’s development. It attempts to understand the place of art in the over-all training of a student. The discussion touches upon the idea of knowledge in a curriculum based set-up, identity-formation in education, theory of multiple intelligence, the relationship between tradition and modernity, role of media in contributing towards art appreciation, parent’s contribution in nurturing the artistic sensibilities of a child and consequences of an educational system which is devoid of art,. The paper contextualises the discussion in the present day Indian society and attempts to briefly explain why and how is art a basic need of every human being.
• Idea of knowledge in a curriculum based set-up
In a country like ours - which has been nurtured by many civilisations, which speaks innumerable dialects, which practices diverse religions, which shares distinct lifestyles - it is indeed difficult to define the idea of knowledge which can be compartmentalised and presented in a concise manner within a formal education system. We are also a product of a colonial heritage which has percolated deep into the present day society. How it has affected our education system is evident from the following words of Penny Mackeon
‘Macaulay argued in 1835 that providing education based on Sanskrit and Arabic in India is of no use for India’s development, and argued instead for education based on English literature. He envisaged creating, “a class of persons, Indian in blood and colour, but English in taste, in opinions, in morals, and in intellect”. The Minute is based on an idea that English education is not just superior in ‘science’, but would also inculcate superior morals, etc. that were responsible for making the English superior. We can see in the Minute, an early precursor for debates to come on the role of institutions in development.’
But it is important to question this very idea of development which was imposed on the people of India and its direct consequence can be seen in the way we situate our study of art in a curriculum based education. By targeting our classical languages, Macaulay hit at the very fabric that connects our multifaceted culture.
Now we are in an education system which partitions knowledge and expects children of various cultural, social and economic backgrounds to fit into a regiment which caters to a market driven society. Children are engineered to gain information and reproduce it in ways which are conducive to the present times. Britzmen comments
(This) curriculum organization is fragmented into instructional activities reduced to discrete blocks of time, thereby isolating subject areas and teachers, abstracting knowledge from its socio-cultural roots and political consequences, and decontextualizing knowledge and skills from their practical existences’
Which explains why children are made to absorb knowledge and re-cycle it rather that trained ‘how to think’ (Sullivan). The education system seems to work under a constraint of serving a dominant ideology which expects it to cater to the activities of a contemporary society. Seldom do educationists realise the purpose of education and especially the role of art in it. They neglect the fact that arts can contribute in giving a child a better sense of reality. As Don H. Krug and Nuhit Cohen Evron reflect
The arts contribute to this inquiry by adding knowledge from aesthetics, art criticism, art history, and art production. An important characteristic is its emphasis on personal and collective interpretations of a subject, idea, or theme. These interpretations help contextualize and broaden the range of meanings of a particular area of study. Interpretations through the arts can increase student’s opportunities to view realities other than as the organization of objective facts.
Different thinkers have commented on the role of art in understanding society and its relevance in education. Gandhi wanted art and higher learning to be social responsibilities only so far as they have a social utility whereas Tagore believed much of art and higher education must to be completely unrelated to society's immediate needs. Humayun Kabir explains that for
Tagore, the mind is nourished in truth; the imagination is nourished in art; and the world of relationship is nourished in sympathy for the created universe.
The aesthetic sense became the synthetic principle in his conception of holistic learning.
Earlier the Indian society functioned in a syncretic manner wherein the arts were incorporated into the daily life as a part of a child’s knowledge but now there is a clear cut demarcation wherein education is rated as essential and art as a vocation. It is this secondary treatment given to arts which curbs the artiste in many children, stifles their potential and limits their capabilities. Devi Prasad says,
We are facing the consequences of Keynesian theory which led the West towards pursuit of economic happiness and rejected morality, thus gearing education to greed and deceit
• Idea of identity
Following questions are intrinsic to the idea of education because they delve into the concept of identity – of an individual and the collective.
What kind of person is a child trained to become? How is this training addressed to her role in a collective? How is a sense of belonging inculcated in the education set -up? How does education develop a feeling of responsibility in the child towards one’s history, culture, and ethos?
School is a place where children from different backgrounds collect to share a part of them in order to re-invent themselves in the present day world. This active engagement between students is very crucial in building a sense of identity in a child. Children share a ‘syncretic experience’ which allows them to not only grow together but also develop their individual identity wherein art plays a very crucial role as it engages in
building an under- standing of the nature of perception, the capacity for reasoning (Ralph Smith 1970 )
We construct ‘stacks of knowledge’ in a system of education at various levels. Cole explains how each child is a product of a lineage which has a bears on her psyche. She brings with her a baggage of her culture and a sense of individuality which slowly flowers when she comes in contact with others. This interaction which takes place within a geographical area and a disciplined curriculum leaves lasting imprints on her which she carries forward in other walks of her life. It is this very interaction which acquires a unique dimension once art education in incorporated in it. The sensitive quality and aesthetic appeal of arts make knowledge acquisition a multi-sensory experience which not only nurtures a child’s personality but connects her to a wider spectrum called society.
The identity crisis which many children of the present generation are facing is because they are exposed to western culture on all fronts. Without being given grounding in their indigenous cultural expression in form of inputs into religion, aesthetics, art, philosophy their sensibilities are just being eroded by cultural symbols and images which do not form a part of an Indian thought. These children live here but dream of West. They are completely alienated from the cultural fabric which binds us as a thriving civilization. They have a very limited understanding of who they really are. –what does it mean to be an Indian and how has this nation evolved. It is this
‘serious shrinkage of background knowledge and information that people bring to their efforts in communicating with and understanding one another.’ (Smith 1968)
An art form is not just and expression. It is the culmination of many sensibilities across time and space. It is the crystallised form of a collective history; it is an expression of a continued dialogue between the individual and the collective. Because the child does not get introduced to different forms of arts and is only exposed to images of the here and now, her link with a cultural continuum is lost. She does not have any grounding as an individual. Neither can she relate to her past nor does she have a sense of direction regarding her future. A limited understanding of herself shrinks her world into an existentialist reality which is manipulated by the dominant forces of society. It is a calculated and well thought of agenda of these forces to keep people ignorant and culturally deplete so that they can be pushed into thinking and acting in a desired manner. People are used as puppets.
Hence it is crucial now more than ever that a child is given a sound footing in her heritage which is only possible if she is educated in arts.
•Theory of multiple intelligence
Human beings can think in myriad ways. They are a storehouse of many talents. No two human beings are the same. These sentences might sound like clichés but it is very important to understand that in the present educational system all the children are
expected to think in limited number of ways which can help them score marks in their exams and later secure a seat in a covetable university. The entire education system is geared towards pruning the sensibilities of children and preparing them for a harsh world which only understands the language of higher and higher percentages, digress from acclaimed seats of knowledge and high salary jobs in some prestigious companies. The education system does not give enough space for a child to get in touch with the artiste in her. In fact there is deliberate effort to curb the artistic potential of a child and make her master subjects which fall into the framework of the present day knowledge. Why should a child who might be good in painting, or sculpture, or dance, music made to go through the regimented course schedule of 12 years ? Why cannot she be trained in that specific area of knowledge and allowed to specialise in that field ? All the acclaimed minds in sports or arts are not university products. Point is how many individuals can afford to break away form the system and follow their pursuits – very few. It is the fault of the system which has not generated multiple systems of knowledge; Howards Gardner came up with the theory of multiple intelligences which says that IQ is not the only scale to measure a child’s intelligence. According to him, there are 7 intelligences which influence the workings of a mind. They are ,
1. Linguistic intelligence (as in a poet);
2. Logical-mathematical intelligence (as in a scientist);
3. Musical intelligence (as in a composer);
4. Spatial intelligence (as in a sculptor or airplane pilot);
5. Bodily kinesthetic intelligence (as in an athlete or dancer);
6. Interpersonal intelligence (as in a salesman or teacher);
7. Intrapersonal intelligence (exhibited by individuals with accurate views of themselves).
Since the traditional schools only emphasise on logistics and linguistic intelligence the way they teach only revolves around these two aspects. They do not explore other forms of knowledge which can train children in different skills. It is also important to understand that a child can be good in maths and also in music, she can dance and do chemistry, he can play very good piano and excel in computer networking. The education system does not bring together different intelligences thereby limiting not only the potential of the child but also the possibilities of her excelling in multiple fields.
Devi Prasad comments that
for the balanced growth of the personality of the child, the growth of the mind, and the body should be inter linked and integrate
• Relationship between tradition and modernity
Arts are treated as a mis-fit in today’s jet set world. Youngsters criticise art forms by labelling them as boring, archaic, old-fashioned, fossilised, slow, and esoteric. Parents who actually grew in a society, in which these arts thrived, are caught in their own confused state of mind as they want to connect to their children but do not want to invest time in inculcating artistic sensibilities because it takes effort and patience.
The popular belief now is to let go of past in order to connect to present in an anticipation for a better future. But this understanding of modernity is highly biased and incomplete. It emerges out of a cultural vacuum which fills the lives of many people because they have lost touch with their ethos.
A person is always a part of a legacy. The responsibility rests on the education system to preserve her legacy by teaching her how to connect to it, grow with it, embellish it and transform it into a new form with respect to space and time. If this link with the past is not established then a socio-cultural lacunae is formed which will keep widening
As Devi Prasad says
modern education based on the educational foundations laid during colonial period is expediting the rapid extinction of these traditions
Hence it becomes highly important that a conscious effort is made by policy makers, educationists, teachers and parents to incorporate art in the overall education of a child. Ralph Smith has clearly explained this in following words
The inculcation of a general capability and informed attitude toward both the art of one's own era and the art of the past in one's own and other cultures is a significant educational objective. The arts are important to the development of a rich personal lifeworld; they also contribute, together with other experiences, to an individual's ability to articulate the significance of personal life world values to others
Modernity germinated in Industrialization. Man started mastering the nature for his needs. This urge to go beyond nature, changing its motifs, modifying its expressions, bringing it into the fold of a mechanised world affected not only his relationship with nature but also how he related to fellow human beings. Human expressions which earlier tried imitating nature, which experienced her in different forms and ways, expressions which became a part of self-exploration slowly started to die out.
It is only in arts that people still see this connection between human being and nature. Art celebrates culture, which is born from the coming together of nature and human being. And Art Education is a process to understand culture. This network between human being , nature, culture and education is very important in a child’s growth and it is the responsibility of a society to nurture this network.
• Role of media in contributing towards art appreciation
Doordarshan as a public broadcaster of India is the only channel which telecasts programme on art and culture. THE HINDU is the only newspaper which focuses on cultural issues. Barring these two there is no space in print or on air which informs people about issues related to art. Contribution of Cyber space cannot be neglected but what children need is a well designed series of programmes on art and culture.
There are innumerable reality shows which claim to identify and nurture real talent in children, But at what cost? Children are put through tremendous pressure to perform well. They become stars of the nation overnight and by a popular voting are dropped out of the show the very next day hence playing as a victim into the hands of ‘consumerism of culture’.
Appalling are ways in which young children dance and sing all kinds of composition from Hindi movies. Neither do these songs suit a child’s age nor are they conducive for her /his sensibilities. But parents feel very proud that their ward is seen on a national channel. Producers of the show and cell phone companies make millions out of such shows. But the child gets victimised in many ways which does not alarm anyone. The entire nation silently witnesses innocence of young children being paraded on a television channel.
People still remember the cartoons of NFDC, aired in 1980s and 90s which talked about different issues - national integration, unity, diversity, education, team work, Simple and melodious lyrics touched everyone’s heart and communicated the message to one and all. It was a deliberate effort to educate children through stories, music and animation. The fact that people still remember those images speaks for the fact that arts can be entertaining and educative as well if packaged in a sensitive manner.
• Parent’s contribution in nurturing the artistic sensibilities of a child
Child gains knowledge from school but how this knowledge is integrated into the overall upbringing of a child is the responsibility of parents. John Dewey says that earlier there was not much difference between what the child studied and what she experienced but today there is wide gap between the two. Today’s parents want their children to master everything. They want their wards to score good marks, excel in sports, and get trained in dance or music. But most of them hardly spend time to actually understand what the child is capable of. There are parents who do make an effort to put their child for music or dance but only during vacations. The child is ‘socialized’ to think that arts are always secondary and a matter of hobby. Artistic sensibilities of children are hardly nurtured. Parents justify their act by blaming the system which insists that a child has to score 90% and above in order to get a seat in decent university for higher education. If the child fails to do so then there she/he has no future. This is entirely the fault of the system which insists on creating a work force out of its citizens. Art is never seen as a lucrative field for a job. This is partially true because there is no financial security for any artiste. Attached to this is the manner in which society rates arts. A software professional is considered to be reputed, intelligent, modern and talented but a musician is not.
It is a lack of government will to bring art and culture into the centre stage. There is no cultural policy. Setting up organisations like Sangeet Natak Akademi , Sahitya Kala Parishad will not make much difference if there is no concerted effort made by educationists, artistes, parents to urge the government to make art education mandatory.
Parents and the education system interpret art education as limited to learning some skills during few extra hours in school time table. This is a partial and shallow understanding of what art education means. It is branch of knowledge which gives a student an insight into understanding the human ontology. (Egan) Ralph Smith explains that art education is a form of value education with human experience at its centre. And it is this vintage point from where parents need to understand the place of art in a child’s upbringing.
• Consequences of an educational system which is devoid of art
The entire discussion leads to one moot question - what will happen to human society if art is not incorporated into education. Sadly there is no particular empirical way in which the consequences can be measured but this will surely affect the society in the long run. Children will loose out on cultural values. They will become puppets in the hands of a system which only wants intelligent yet unaware minds to keep the system running. Creative capabilities of children will be curbed because with creativity comes originality and the present system does not want individuals who can think on original lines. Devi Prasad reflects on why art should be made a part of curriculum.
Art is divorced from our daily life and it is necessary to incorporate it in education as its most important aim is to inculcate in every human being an awareness and sensitivity to all the aspects of our environment , and grace in everyday life
It is this lack of grace which is slowly affecting our cultural ethos. Individuals do not give importance to relationships. Values are masqueraded in the most artificial way. Importance is given to how much an individual can hoard and flaunt. Instant gratification has become the mantra of the day. The subtlety, depth, inward –looking qualities of arts are rarely nurtured in today’s child. Art education is about creativity, originality, developing a sense of wonder, persistence, and in-depth knowledge. Ralph Smith describes it as a critical activity which engages a child’s mind in description, analysis, interpretation and evaluation.
Experience in art is always a collective one which begins with an individual and spreads to everyone who comes in touch with his piece of creation. Art brings people together beyond geographical boundaries. It crosses all kinds of socio-cultural-economic barriers to connect people. Smith describes this art experiences
People can get things done n a general idea and standardized procedure but it is only when these things are absorbed in perceptual presence that a personal acquaintance is developed with the environment and the very experience becomes rich and intense
This phenomenon in philosophy of Indian art is called sadharanikaran - when a ‘particular’ becomes the ‘universal’. Art goes against the ‘atomised nature of social fabric’ and engulfs one and all in a heightened aesthetic experience.
Conclusion
Karl Marx says that
animals produce under the dominion of immediate physical need, whilst man produces even when he is free from physical need and only truly produces in freedom there from.
Like food, shelter, clothing and re-production art is a basic need of every human being. It is not related to the economic status of a person. Poor people also have their cultural expressions. With whatever little a woman has she still paints the walls of her hut with some motifs of nature.
Ralph Smith elucidates
One is reminded that "the cognitive, while contrasted with both the practical and the passive, does not exclude the sensory or the emotive, that what we know through art is felt in our bones and nerves and muscles as well as grasped by our minds, that all the sensitivity and responsiveness of the organism participates in the invention and interpretation of symbols.
Art is a human expression which reflects everything in nature and society. It is a multi-sensory experience of human sensibilities. And it is this very nature of art which makes it an inevitable part of a child’s growth. A child needs to experience herself in totality. She needs to develop a sense of wonder towards oneself and nature. She needs to grow as a sensitive human being and extend her sensitivity in everything that she does and art education gives her all possibilities for this kind of self-exploration. Avijith Pathak explains this beautifully.
To have aesthetic education is therefore, to restore meaning in life, to evolve a way of seeing, feeling and relating to the world .
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Britzman D. (1991): Practice makes practice: A study of learning to teach, State University of New York Press, New York.
2. Cole, M. ( 1990): Cultural psychology: A once and future discipline?, Centre for Human Information Processing, University of California, San Diego.
3. Devi Prasad. (1998): Art: the basis of education, National book Trust, New Delhi
4. Egan, K. (1988): Primary understanding: Education in early childhood. Routledge, New York
5. Kabir, Humayun. (1956): ‘Continuity of Tradition in Indian Educational Thought’ , Philosophy East and West, Vol. 6, No. 1, pp. 13-33
6. Madeja Stanley, Kelly Harry. (1970): ‘A curriculum development model for aesthetic education’, Journal of Aesthetic Education, Vol. 4, No. 2, pp. 53-63
7. McKeon, Penny. (2002): ‘The Sense of Art History in Art Education’, Journal of Aesthetic Education, Vol. 36, No. 2 pp. 98-109
8. Pathak, Avijith. (2006): Modernity, Globalization and Identity: Towards a reflexive quest, Aakar Books, New Delhi
9. Smith, Ralph, Smith Christiana M. (1970): ‘Justifying Aesthetic Education’ , Journal of Aesthetic Education, Vol. 4, No. 2, pp. 37-51
10. Smith, Ralph. (1968): ‘Aesthetic Criticism: The Method of Aesthetic Education’, Studies in Art Education, Vol. 9, No. pp. 12-31
11. Sullivan, Graeme. (1993): ‘Art-Based Art Education: Learning That Is Meaningful, Authentic, Critical and Pluralist’, Studies in Art Education, Vol. 35, No. 1, pp. 5-21
Tuesday, November 8, 2011
Is there a Tomorrow for the Dalits ?
Introduction
A recent report in THE HINDU carries news about five Dalit men who were lynched to death and the police sent a cow for post-mortem report. Three Dalit students in Delhi University were beaten with sticks and rods. The entire Dalit population of a village in Gujarat's Amreli district was subjected to an economic boycott — no water supply, no essential commodities, no employment, no freedom to leave the village and the District Collector did nothing. In Betul district, Madhya Pradesh, a woman member of a panchayat was raped by upper caste men and paraded naked with bells tied around her neck. This was `punishment' because she was having relationship with a man. Nothing has been done to the men who raped her.
The preamble of our constitution makes a pledge by the people of India to secure ‘justice’, ‘liberty’, ‘equality’ ‘fraternity’ for the entire society. In wake of such events these claims only seem to be reduced to clichés. Although the problem of Dalit subjugation in independent India is as old as our independence but this social phenomena goes back to the late Vedic era. The word ‘Dalit’ was not in vogue then and the society followed varna system but the roots of the present day problem were sown in that period itself. Why hasn’t our country been able to eradicate this social evil ? Even after having a Dalit as a president and a Dalit woman as one of our chief ministers why is it that millions are subjected to humiliation at various levels even today? Even after Dr B.R. Ambedkar led many Mahars to convert into Buddhism and by doing so paved a path of ‘emancipation’ why is it that even today there are equal number ( or even more) of Dalits who have no hope for a better tomorrow ? By trying to understand the magnitude of the issue at multiple levels of social interaction, the article brings together the views of various thinkers who have made detailed analyses of this issue.
How does the title ‘Dalit’ affect a social psyche
Although the Hindu community is highly stratified, the differentiations between various groups do not present themselves as apparently as in the case of Dalits. The ‘twice born’ castes do practice hierarchy but they all treat Dalits in ways which border on sub-human behaviour. When Risley conducted the census in 1901 he classified the shudras as those from whom Brahmins can take water, from whom they cannot take even water and those whose shadow if falls on Brahmin will impure the him to the extent that he will have to bathe to cleanse himself. This is certainly a blatant expression of marginalization. Since 1903 Dalits have been ascribed different titles like ‘Depressed class’, ‘Panchama’, ‘Suppressed Class’, ‘Pariahs’ etc. Simon Charsley asks the question ‘What is in the name’. But these epithets ascribed to certain sections of the society illustrate how the very psyche of a section of a society is attacked repeatedly generation after generation.
The Role of education
School is an institution where the mind of a child is groomed. S(he) is not only trained in certain skills but also exposed to realities of life which sharpen her faculties in order to develop a clear perspective about oneself and the society. It becomes imperative that children from all sections are made aware of the social differentiations so that they can play a role in eradicating them. But the present day educational system is only manufacturing intelligences in order to stunt the potential of a student to question reality thereby reducing him/her to become another tool in the mega factory of capitalistic culture. Kancha Ilaiah makes an astute observation when he writes in his book ‘Why I am not a Hindu’ that stories of Dalit Bahujans are not included in the educational system. Textbook morality is different from living morality. And hence students are distanced from the key issues of social stratification. Iliah recalls, ‘..a whole lot of us were made to see things upside down’. In such a skewed education system how can an interest in Dalit issues be created? How will the younger generations be made aware of the underlying atrocities of the society? Media and internet are possibly the only two sources through which people can get information but many times even news is reported in a biased manner. It seems there is a deliberate political project of hiding truth from people. When children prepare to enter the institutions of higher education they are segregated into various categories on the basis of reservation. It is understandable that the State is exercising certain practices under ‘positive discrimination’ but is this helping to bridge the gap between the Dalits and other sections of the society?
Emulation as a hope to get included in the mainstream
When Dalits realise that they will not be respected due to their ascribed status, they start imitating other sections of society who are treated with respect. This process stems from the stark realities of life. Gopala Guru in his article ‘Dalit Movement in Mainstream Sociology’ mentions that Dalit scenario is highlighted by total marginalisation and annihilation of the rural Dalits. B.R. Ambedkar in his book ‘Conversion as Emancipation’ recalls moments from his childhood which left an indelible mark on his psyche. No barber wanted to cut his hair. When he told a station master about his caste, the station master receded 5 steps. No bullock cart driver wanted to transport him. Such instances affected an extraordinary brain like Ambedkar then it is not hard to imagine how much ordinary Dalits must be facing. They are marginalised, excluded form developmental programmes, the rich Dalits exploit the poor Dalit. All these factors force Dalits to emulate upper caste people through Sankritization and other practices in social mobility. But even then it is only after two to three generations of such emulation that there might arise a possibility for them to be included in the mainstream. Most of them spent their entire lives hoping to be accepted.
Conversion as the extreme measure
Religion is an intrinsic part of one’s identity. But if it manacles a person, then it has to be discarded. Many Hindus are pushed to take the extreme step of conversion in a hope that at least the new religion will give them some semblance of life but the caste ascription is so hopelessly attached to a person that the situation hardly changes. Ambedkar saw conversion as an emancipatory measure because being a Hindu he felt caged in a Hindu society. The Law guarantees an untouchable ‘to wear decent clothes’ , ‘to fetch water in metal pots’, ‘to put tiles on houses’ but the society does not allow him to exercise these rights. The Law might guarantee freedom to the Untouchables but the society does not. Hence he asked in his speech delivered in Dadar on 31st May 193, if mind was not free then what is the point of having physical freedom? He said strength needs to be brought from outside and urger for the need for coversion. Three factors which according to him uplift an individual are sympathy, equality and liberty and all three are not there in Hinduism for the Untouchables. Rajni Kothari in her article ‘Rise of Dalits and the Renewed Debate on caste’ says, ‘marginalised sections have started seeking out their own future on the basis of their identity and numbers’ but it is also true that the phenomena of conversion is politically manoeuvred in order to cash on the vote bank which estranges a Dalit from one community and alienates him/her in the other.
Radical voices
‘Why I am not a Hindu’ is an example of an exposition in which the writer has targeted the Hindu scriptures, gods and goddesses, marriage system, family set-up, occupation, man-woman relationship from a highly critical standpoint. It is understandable why the narration is done with such vehemence because it voices the frustrations of many suppressed people. He talks of ‘Dalitizing the Brahmin’ and comments that Hinduism and Hindutva are the two sides of the same coin. It is understandable from which perspective is the writer commenting on the popular beliefs of the Hindus but such commentaries only widens the existing gap between the Dalits and other sections of Hindus. These narratives have their own place in the Dalit discourse and need to be contextualised. An alternative reading of the same text reveals the pain, frustration, anguish and anger which the writer is trying to communicate.
Is economic growth the solution ?
Although scholars like Gopal Guru say that economic growth is one of the major solutions for caste-based problems but the casteist politics is so deeply entrenched in society that development does not reach all the sections of Dalits society. Dalit movements with undercurrents of relative deprivation practiced by the State reveal monopolisation of available jobs by the upper castes. Within their communities relative deprivation and social mobility isolate one group form the other and prevent formulation of a critical consciousness. Possibility of development of a homogenised Dalit unity cutting across castes as well as region is suspended. Gopal Guru further adds that ‘Relative Deprivation diffuses social consciousness, promotes individual consciousness with atomising dimensions which isolates people within their community thus deviating from the historical responsibility that Ambedkar had rested on their shoulders for emancipating themselves’.
Conclusion
While the system exploits the status of Dalits it is also known that some individuals in the Dalit community exploit the system by cashing on their status for unwarranted privileges offered by the State. Reservation which started with an objective of giving justice to the oppressed sections of the society has now been reduced to a political tool to encash on people’s emotions. Unless caste is identified as a ‘disease of mind’, unless there is a multi-layered socio-cultural-political movement with a focussed approach of bringing radical transformations in the inter-personal relationship, words in India’s constitution will not be translated into action.
A recent report in THE HINDU carries news about five Dalit men who were lynched to death and the police sent a cow for post-mortem report. Three Dalit students in Delhi University were beaten with sticks and rods. The entire Dalit population of a village in Gujarat's Amreli district was subjected to an economic boycott — no water supply, no essential commodities, no employment, no freedom to leave the village and the District Collector did nothing. In Betul district, Madhya Pradesh, a woman member of a panchayat was raped by upper caste men and paraded naked with bells tied around her neck. This was `punishment' because she was having relationship with a man. Nothing has been done to the men who raped her.
The preamble of our constitution makes a pledge by the people of India to secure ‘justice’, ‘liberty’, ‘equality’ ‘fraternity’ for the entire society. In wake of such events these claims only seem to be reduced to clichés. Although the problem of Dalit subjugation in independent India is as old as our independence but this social phenomena goes back to the late Vedic era. The word ‘Dalit’ was not in vogue then and the society followed varna system but the roots of the present day problem were sown in that period itself. Why hasn’t our country been able to eradicate this social evil ? Even after having a Dalit as a president and a Dalit woman as one of our chief ministers why is it that millions are subjected to humiliation at various levels even today? Even after Dr B.R. Ambedkar led many Mahars to convert into Buddhism and by doing so paved a path of ‘emancipation’ why is it that even today there are equal number ( or even more) of Dalits who have no hope for a better tomorrow ? By trying to understand the magnitude of the issue at multiple levels of social interaction, the article brings together the views of various thinkers who have made detailed analyses of this issue.
How does the title ‘Dalit’ affect a social psyche
Although the Hindu community is highly stratified, the differentiations between various groups do not present themselves as apparently as in the case of Dalits. The ‘twice born’ castes do practice hierarchy but they all treat Dalits in ways which border on sub-human behaviour. When Risley conducted the census in 1901 he classified the shudras as those from whom Brahmins can take water, from whom they cannot take even water and those whose shadow if falls on Brahmin will impure the him to the extent that he will have to bathe to cleanse himself. This is certainly a blatant expression of marginalization. Since 1903 Dalits have been ascribed different titles like ‘Depressed class’, ‘Panchama’, ‘Suppressed Class’, ‘Pariahs’ etc. Simon Charsley asks the question ‘What is in the name’. But these epithets ascribed to certain sections of the society illustrate how the very psyche of a section of a society is attacked repeatedly generation after generation.
The Role of education
School is an institution where the mind of a child is groomed. S(he) is not only trained in certain skills but also exposed to realities of life which sharpen her faculties in order to develop a clear perspective about oneself and the society. It becomes imperative that children from all sections are made aware of the social differentiations so that they can play a role in eradicating them. But the present day educational system is only manufacturing intelligences in order to stunt the potential of a student to question reality thereby reducing him/her to become another tool in the mega factory of capitalistic culture. Kancha Ilaiah makes an astute observation when he writes in his book ‘Why I am not a Hindu’ that stories of Dalit Bahujans are not included in the educational system. Textbook morality is different from living morality. And hence students are distanced from the key issues of social stratification. Iliah recalls, ‘..a whole lot of us were made to see things upside down’. In such a skewed education system how can an interest in Dalit issues be created? How will the younger generations be made aware of the underlying atrocities of the society? Media and internet are possibly the only two sources through which people can get information but many times even news is reported in a biased manner. It seems there is a deliberate political project of hiding truth from people. When children prepare to enter the institutions of higher education they are segregated into various categories on the basis of reservation. It is understandable that the State is exercising certain practices under ‘positive discrimination’ but is this helping to bridge the gap between the Dalits and other sections of the society?
Emulation as a hope to get included in the mainstream
When Dalits realise that they will not be respected due to their ascribed status, they start imitating other sections of society who are treated with respect. This process stems from the stark realities of life. Gopala Guru in his article ‘Dalit Movement in Mainstream Sociology’ mentions that Dalit scenario is highlighted by total marginalisation and annihilation of the rural Dalits. B.R. Ambedkar in his book ‘Conversion as Emancipation’ recalls moments from his childhood which left an indelible mark on his psyche. No barber wanted to cut his hair. When he told a station master about his caste, the station master receded 5 steps. No bullock cart driver wanted to transport him. Such instances affected an extraordinary brain like Ambedkar then it is not hard to imagine how much ordinary Dalits must be facing. They are marginalised, excluded form developmental programmes, the rich Dalits exploit the poor Dalit. All these factors force Dalits to emulate upper caste people through Sankritization and other practices in social mobility. But even then it is only after two to three generations of such emulation that there might arise a possibility for them to be included in the mainstream. Most of them spent their entire lives hoping to be accepted.
Conversion as the extreme measure
Religion is an intrinsic part of one’s identity. But if it manacles a person, then it has to be discarded. Many Hindus are pushed to take the extreme step of conversion in a hope that at least the new religion will give them some semblance of life but the caste ascription is so hopelessly attached to a person that the situation hardly changes. Ambedkar saw conversion as an emancipatory measure because being a Hindu he felt caged in a Hindu society. The Law guarantees an untouchable ‘to wear decent clothes’ , ‘to fetch water in metal pots’, ‘to put tiles on houses’ but the society does not allow him to exercise these rights. The Law might guarantee freedom to the Untouchables but the society does not. Hence he asked in his speech delivered in Dadar on 31st May 193, if mind was not free then what is the point of having physical freedom? He said strength needs to be brought from outside and urger for the need for coversion. Three factors which according to him uplift an individual are sympathy, equality and liberty and all three are not there in Hinduism for the Untouchables. Rajni Kothari in her article ‘Rise of Dalits and the Renewed Debate on caste’ says, ‘marginalised sections have started seeking out their own future on the basis of their identity and numbers’ but it is also true that the phenomena of conversion is politically manoeuvred in order to cash on the vote bank which estranges a Dalit from one community and alienates him/her in the other.
Radical voices
‘Why I am not a Hindu’ is an example of an exposition in which the writer has targeted the Hindu scriptures, gods and goddesses, marriage system, family set-up, occupation, man-woman relationship from a highly critical standpoint. It is understandable why the narration is done with such vehemence because it voices the frustrations of many suppressed people. He talks of ‘Dalitizing the Brahmin’ and comments that Hinduism and Hindutva are the two sides of the same coin. It is understandable from which perspective is the writer commenting on the popular beliefs of the Hindus but such commentaries only widens the existing gap between the Dalits and other sections of Hindus. These narratives have their own place in the Dalit discourse and need to be contextualised. An alternative reading of the same text reveals the pain, frustration, anguish and anger which the writer is trying to communicate.
Is economic growth the solution ?
Although scholars like Gopal Guru say that economic growth is one of the major solutions for caste-based problems but the casteist politics is so deeply entrenched in society that development does not reach all the sections of Dalits society. Dalit movements with undercurrents of relative deprivation practiced by the State reveal monopolisation of available jobs by the upper castes. Within their communities relative deprivation and social mobility isolate one group form the other and prevent formulation of a critical consciousness. Possibility of development of a homogenised Dalit unity cutting across castes as well as region is suspended. Gopal Guru further adds that ‘Relative Deprivation diffuses social consciousness, promotes individual consciousness with atomising dimensions which isolates people within their community thus deviating from the historical responsibility that Ambedkar had rested on their shoulders for emancipating themselves’.
Conclusion
While the system exploits the status of Dalits it is also known that some individuals in the Dalit community exploit the system by cashing on their status for unwarranted privileges offered by the State. Reservation which started with an objective of giving justice to the oppressed sections of the society has now been reduced to a political tool to encash on people’s emotions. Unless caste is identified as a ‘disease of mind’, unless there is a multi-layered socio-cultural-political movement with a focussed approach of bringing radical transformations in the inter-personal relationship, words in India’s constitution will not be translated into action.
On religion and gender…
There is an innate need in human beings to connect to a power which is transcendental. Over millennia this power acquired a form as an icon, or as a symbol depending on the socio-cultural inputs which went into formulating a particular religion. The form bridged the gap between what human mind perceived as ethereal and material, masculine and feminine, inert and dynamic. It presented an ‘ideal type’ of what a human being wanted to be or wished to see in another human being. Hence he looked upto these forms in an act of aspiration, desire, and devotion. This relationship between the divine and the mortal grew over centuries into a social system which we now call a religion. Soon this system started churning out rules and roles for everyone. But what surfaces as the most paradoxical nature of this system is how feminine energy is projected as a divine entity and how a woman is treated in day-to day life. The article discusses the gulf between the divine nad mortal with respect to Hinduism and briefly touches on the issue o gender with respect to Islam and Christianity.
Concept of Prakriti and Purusha
Hinduism, especially Sankhya philosophy regards the universe as consisting of two realities: Purusha (consciousness) and Prakriti (phenomenal realm of matter). Purusha, the cosmic consciousness, is the basis of Prakriti, its material nature. They are the experiencer and the experienced. The play between prakriti and purusha at the philosophical level is the one between dynamics and statics, inert and covert. Cosmogony begins when Brahman the Universal Being separates the feminine principle from himself. When divided from Brahman the feminine principle becomes Prakirti, which is also often equated with maya( meaning illusion). Males contain, females are contained; males are active creative agents, females are submissive ones; male seed is the source of new life, the female womb is merely an incubator; males are allied with spiritual processes, females are allied with material—especially sexual—processes.
In Puranas the narration of creation at a cosmic level and its manifestation at the social level have many congruencies. Madeleine Biardeau, traces these patterns in her understating of the Puranas. And enumerates how starting from the abstract level of purusha and prakriti, representations of these energies turn into mythological icons which represent a social concept. The dichotomy arises when the society worships these icons with all pomp and glory but cannot place man and woman at the same level
Hindu Iconography
Lakshmi : Goddess Lakshmi is a symbol of purity, chastity and generosity. She is depicted as sitting on the Sahasrar Kamal , the thousand pettalled lotus which signifies the realisation of supreme truth. Bedecked in golden finery and dressed in auspicious red, she has four hands that symbolize her power to grant the four goals of human life- dharma, (righteousness), artha( wealth), kama(progeny) and moksha(liberation). Lkshmi holds Amrita Kalash(pot of ambrosia)and with the fourth hand gives boon of plenitude.
In India even today parents feel happy to name their girl child Lakshmi but the hard-hitting fact is that majority of girl children in rural areas are only reduces to learn house-hold chores and trained to become good mothers or wives and not pursue any profession which can give them a strong financial base. They do not have any monetary security and have to depend on the male members of the family for everything- thereby living a life of subservience. In urban India although the situation is slightly different majority of women are not empowered financially. At most of the places female workers are paid less than their male counter parts. Even at higher posts the woman has to constantly prove er merit and competence in the male dominated work place. Money also does not empower her in a complete sense because she has to face the onslaught of a dominant ideology.
Saraswati : The saara (essence) of swa( you own self). She who gives this is called Saraswati. Her four hands represent the mind, the intellect, the conditioned consciousness and the ego. The palm leaf manuscripts in the lower left hand point to the foundational role of knowledge. The rosary in the upper right hand signifies the power of focused thinking. With the other two hands the goddess holds Veena ( string instrument) thus symbolizing the need to harmonize the mind with the intellect to create the music of contentment. The instrument also establishes her as the presiding deity of all creative and performing arts.
In pre-Vedic era women were allowed to pursue knowledge. But in the Vedic times women were barred from studies of any kind. Natya Veda- the fifth Veda was composed by Bharata only because the other four Vedas- Rig, Yajur, Sama and Athrva were beyond the reach of women. Their minds were trained and nurtured only for the purpose of sustaining the basic needs of the society- food and progeny. In traditional Indian society girls were kept away from pursuing any forms of art -Music and painting to some extent but dance was a taboo for a woman who formed a part of general socity. This lacunae between what society wanted and what it practiced led to the system of Devadasis where girls were dedicated to the temple. They were at power with the priest in executing the ritual ceremonies but were not given a legitimate place in the society like other women. A devadasi was always treated as the ‘other’ as she was not allowed to marry a man in the brahminical tradition. Instead she was consecrated to the temple and married to the image of God and henceforth called ‘Nityasumangali’- eternally married. She had complete access to arts and literature but only by staying outside the boundaries of a regular society. She was treated as the bridge between the transcendental religious world and the social world , a connection between Man and God. This reduced her to an intermediate zone as far as the society was concerned. which is why the Devadasi system faced the onslaught of the Brahminical movement in late 18th and early 19th century championed by the British colonizers which finally led to the abolition of the Devadasi system. Woman has always had to choose between the two – the knowledge or the society and those who chose both have always had to tread a very difficult path in their lives.
Shakti : In her various forms, Shakti, the dynamic manifesting power of Shiva epitomizes the worship of the concept of universal mother. She is believed to incarnate on earth in different forms to relieve it from clutches of evil. As Devi Durga she is the ten-armed, lion-riding, goddess who vanquished Mahishasura the buffalo-demon. A warrior, protector, mother, wife and a daughter, Durga is the manifestation of the female godhead in its supreme form.
Contrasting images of violence against women are seen, heard and experienced everyday. Female infanticide is rampant, child marriage is still in practice, women are still tortured for dowry, prostitution levels are high and multi-layered, physical aggression, such as blows of varying intensity, burns, attempted hanging, sexual abuse and rape, psychological violence through insults, humiliation, coercion, blackmail, economic or emotional threats, and control over speech and actions. In extreme, but notunknown cases, death is the result. These expressions of violence take place in a man-woman relationship within the family, state and society. A woman is not powerful enough to fight the myriad forms of Mahishasura which confront her at various turns of life.
The seeds of violence against women are sown at a very young age in the minds of children by their own family members which metamorphose into different expression at various stages of a person’s life. Sheela Saravanan in her report on Violence Against Women in India says that
‘ the family socialises its members to accept hierarchical relations expressed in unequal
division of labour between the sexes and power over the allocation of resources. The
family and its operational unit is where the child is exposed to gender differences since
birth, and in recent times even before birth, in the form of sex-determination tests leading
to foeticide and female infanticide. The home, which is supposed to be the most secure
place, is where women are most exposed to violence. ’
Radha : The eternal love of Radha and Krishna has been the subject of great religious and philosophical imagery. It is interpreted as the relationship between the jeevatma(embodied soul) and the paramatma( universal souls) which forms the foundational basis of the Hindu Dharma. The love of Radha and Krishna is rooted in allegory. Radha is the personification of the devorted minds of the devotee, of the souls searching for the embrace of the universal spirit. Radha is the individual and Krishna is the essence of life.
Here again the imagery is crafted within a male dominated framework. There is not a single goddess in Hindu pantheon who is treated as the universal lover and man is see as the yearning spirit. Thereby the popular ideology propagates the yearning of spiritual union only as that of a female and not male.
Society worships the union of Radha and Krishna - Radha who is a married woman and even elder to Krishna -only because they are Gods. The same prototype when applied in society faces all kinds of oppositions as this kind of a relationship is termed as adultery.
Caste and Gender
There is also a deep connection between caste and gender. Caste is a ubiquitous aspect of Hindu religion. And gender is an issue within the framework of caste which faces a considerable amount of discrimination . Tracy Pintchman says
‘ there is no empirically verifiable biological basis for caste differentiation, whereas the biological realities of gender difference are obvious to all. But caste and gender tend to function socially in similar ways. Like caste, gender plays an important role in structuring social hierarchy in contemporary Indian culture, and both caste and gender have been invoked to legitimate inequitable distributions of wealth and power, differences in status, discrepancies in rights, divisions of labor, and hierarchical notions of inherent worth. ’
Perhaps one can even say that Gender is more fundamental than caste as a principle of hierarchy. And religion imposes certain measures on women to behave in a particular manner with respect to her role in a social set up. With each stage of her life she is expected to follow a set of rules which also have a significant connection with her sexuality.
Popular social codes with respect to Gender
Hinduism also lays down the dress code for a woman depending on her relationship with the man. When a girl attains puberty, indirectly meaning that she is now ready biologically to bear a child, she is required to dress as an elderly woman. Once she is married she needs to carry marks of her marital status. These symbols vary from region to region. For example in south she is expected to wear a thali (sacred thread), metti(toe rings); in Bengal she is required to wear bangles of ivory and lac, in parts of Himachal Pradesh she should wear a nose ring … there are no such rules for men in any religion. He is not ‘marked’ by society as the married one.
For widows each society again has a different code according to which the woman should detach herself from any ornamentation which adds to her physical beauty. She is divested of any ‘need’ to dress beautifully because it is believed that a woman should dress only for a man.
And these regulations for women are so much imbued n the psyche of a woman that she starts justifying them. In case any woman chooses to behave differently, she is marked as a deviant not only by men but by women as well.
Concept of Heaven and Hell
The Hindu society has been perpetuating these gender specific roles time and again. And this cycle of continuance has a deep connection with the concept of heaven and hell. It is believed in Hinduism that a son only is expected to perform the rites for the deceased so that the diceased can attain moksha(liberation). A girl is not even allowed to visit the burial ground of the dead person. This importance given to a mail child not only has connection to the death but also to birth . A son is the one who actually carries the lineage forward, not the daughter because in Hindu society it is indoctrinated in the mind of everyone that the girl does not belong to the father’s family but to the future family of her husband . Hence the seeds of separation are sown at the very beginning. Due to this belief it becomes imperative for a woman to bear a mail child and if she fails to do so she is ostracized by the society physically, and mentally.
Islam and Christianity
Similar dichotomies between deification of women and the status of women is society can be seen in Islam and Christianity as well. Many of the resurgent pre-Islamic cultural practices that have tragically come to be associated with Islam, such as forced marriages, female genital mutilation, bridal (as opposed to groom-paid) dowries, honor killings and the criminalization of rape victims, only resurfaced following the disruption caused by colonialism and the resulting disconnect between the common Muslims and their sources of knowledge. But even today majority of Muslim women are expected to wear burqa. There are no such dress codes for men. But surprisingly writers like Ben Adam validate this practice by saying that
‘ The Muslim woman who wears her hijab (meaning "to veil, to cover , to screen, to shelter"), declares her faith in humility and servitude before God. Only those given divine sanction - her immediate family and other believing women - may view her bodily beauty. In effect, she is saying: ‘Judge me for my faith, not my body - I give you no other choice.’ When faithfully implemented, as it was by its earliest adherents, Islam offers women the freedom, dignity, justice and protection that have long remained out of their reach . As for the veiled Muslim celebrating her womanhood, she is but a reflection of chastity, humility and dignity, a mirror of her devotion to and belief in God - factors which liberate, not subjugate - and for this she can expect a great reward. ’
But there are no such veils for men. Does that mean they are no devout ? does it mean that they lack in humility, dignity or devotion ?
In Christianity Mother Mary is worshipped as Virgin Mary. Why Virgin.. because female sexuality is seen as some kind of a taboo, a disgrace.. . The very process of creation is seen as an offence or wrongdoing and this basic need of the human being is always to be kept under control.
The account of the creation of Eve from Adam's rib in Genesis 2:18-25, for example, has often been invoked as evidence that women are inferior to men by nature and by divine decree. Different writers have pointed out that creation of woman from Adam's rib has been interpreted in the most literal sense for thousands of years to denote the God-given inferiority of woman. The creation of Eve from Adam's rib in Genesis echoes the male-as-container, female-as-contained imagery that is similar to the one in the Puranas. Aristotle proclaimed a similar understanding of procreation portraying the female womb as "merely the passive incubators of the male seed" that is the real source of life .
Conclusion
Hence, gender associations at play in Puranic cosmogonies and more generally in Hindu culture are not unique but exemplify much more widespread biases. Religion is a path to the divine but in society it is treated as a medium of power play which gets predominantly expressed through gender definitions.
Unless woman is treated as an equal to man no ritual, no custom, no rite can emancipate the human being to the level of spiritual being.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Adam, Ben 2006 . The Veil Unveiled: The True Status of Women in Islam available at www.Quran.nu
2. Banerji , Shyam. 2003. Hindu gods and temples, I.K. International Pvt Ltd. New Delhi
3. Website referred : www. Manushi.org
Concept of Prakriti and Purusha
Hinduism, especially Sankhya philosophy regards the universe as consisting of two realities: Purusha (consciousness) and Prakriti (phenomenal realm of matter). Purusha, the cosmic consciousness, is the basis of Prakriti, its material nature. They are the experiencer and the experienced. The play between prakriti and purusha at the philosophical level is the one between dynamics and statics, inert and covert. Cosmogony begins when Brahman the Universal Being separates the feminine principle from himself. When divided from Brahman the feminine principle becomes Prakirti, which is also often equated with maya( meaning illusion). Males contain, females are contained; males are active creative agents, females are submissive ones; male seed is the source of new life, the female womb is merely an incubator; males are allied with spiritual processes, females are allied with material—especially sexual—processes.
In Puranas the narration of creation at a cosmic level and its manifestation at the social level have many congruencies. Madeleine Biardeau, traces these patterns in her understating of the Puranas. And enumerates how starting from the abstract level of purusha and prakriti, representations of these energies turn into mythological icons which represent a social concept. The dichotomy arises when the society worships these icons with all pomp and glory but cannot place man and woman at the same level
Hindu Iconography
Lakshmi : Goddess Lakshmi is a symbol of purity, chastity and generosity. She is depicted as sitting on the Sahasrar Kamal , the thousand pettalled lotus which signifies the realisation of supreme truth. Bedecked in golden finery and dressed in auspicious red, she has four hands that symbolize her power to grant the four goals of human life- dharma, (righteousness), artha( wealth), kama(progeny) and moksha(liberation). Lkshmi holds Amrita Kalash(pot of ambrosia)and with the fourth hand gives boon of plenitude.
In India even today parents feel happy to name their girl child Lakshmi but the hard-hitting fact is that majority of girl children in rural areas are only reduces to learn house-hold chores and trained to become good mothers or wives and not pursue any profession which can give them a strong financial base. They do not have any monetary security and have to depend on the male members of the family for everything- thereby living a life of subservience. In urban India although the situation is slightly different majority of women are not empowered financially. At most of the places female workers are paid less than their male counter parts. Even at higher posts the woman has to constantly prove er merit and competence in the male dominated work place. Money also does not empower her in a complete sense because she has to face the onslaught of a dominant ideology.
Saraswati : The saara (essence) of swa( you own self). She who gives this is called Saraswati. Her four hands represent the mind, the intellect, the conditioned consciousness and the ego. The palm leaf manuscripts in the lower left hand point to the foundational role of knowledge. The rosary in the upper right hand signifies the power of focused thinking. With the other two hands the goddess holds Veena ( string instrument) thus symbolizing the need to harmonize the mind with the intellect to create the music of contentment. The instrument also establishes her as the presiding deity of all creative and performing arts.
In pre-Vedic era women were allowed to pursue knowledge. But in the Vedic times women were barred from studies of any kind. Natya Veda- the fifth Veda was composed by Bharata only because the other four Vedas- Rig, Yajur, Sama and Athrva were beyond the reach of women. Their minds were trained and nurtured only for the purpose of sustaining the basic needs of the society- food and progeny. In traditional Indian society girls were kept away from pursuing any forms of art -Music and painting to some extent but dance was a taboo for a woman who formed a part of general socity. This lacunae between what society wanted and what it practiced led to the system of Devadasis where girls were dedicated to the temple. They were at power with the priest in executing the ritual ceremonies but were not given a legitimate place in the society like other women. A devadasi was always treated as the ‘other’ as she was not allowed to marry a man in the brahminical tradition. Instead she was consecrated to the temple and married to the image of God and henceforth called ‘Nityasumangali’- eternally married. She had complete access to arts and literature but only by staying outside the boundaries of a regular society. She was treated as the bridge between the transcendental religious world and the social world , a connection between Man and God. This reduced her to an intermediate zone as far as the society was concerned. which is why the Devadasi system faced the onslaught of the Brahminical movement in late 18th and early 19th century championed by the British colonizers which finally led to the abolition of the Devadasi system. Woman has always had to choose between the two – the knowledge or the society and those who chose both have always had to tread a very difficult path in their lives.
Shakti : In her various forms, Shakti, the dynamic manifesting power of Shiva epitomizes the worship of the concept of universal mother. She is believed to incarnate on earth in different forms to relieve it from clutches of evil. As Devi Durga she is the ten-armed, lion-riding, goddess who vanquished Mahishasura the buffalo-demon. A warrior, protector, mother, wife and a daughter, Durga is the manifestation of the female godhead in its supreme form.
Contrasting images of violence against women are seen, heard and experienced everyday. Female infanticide is rampant, child marriage is still in practice, women are still tortured for dowry, prostitution levels are high and multi-layered, physical aggression, such as blows of varying intensity, burns, attempted hanging, sexual abuse and rape, psychological violence through insults, humiliation, coercion, blackmail, economic or emotional threats, and control over speech and actions. In extreme, but notunknown cases, death is the result. These expressions of violence take place in a man-woman relationship within the family, state and society. A woman is not powerful enough to fight the myriad forms of Mahishasura which confront her at various turns of life.
The seeds of violence against women are sown at a very young age in the minds of children by their own family members which metamorphose into different expression at various stages of a person’s life. Sheela Saravanan in her report on Violence Against Women in India says that
‘ the family socialises its members to accept hierarchical relations expressed in unequal
division of labour between the sexes and power over the allocation of resources. The
family and its operational unit is where the child is exposed to gender differences since
birth, and in recent times even before birth, in the form of sex-determination tests leading
to foeticide and female infanticide. The home, which is supposed to be the most secure
place, is where women are most exposed to violence. ’
Radha : The eternal love of Radha and Krishna has been the subject of great religious and philosophical imagery. It is interpreted as the relationship between the jeevatma(embodied soul) and the paramatma( universal souls) which forms the foundational basis of the Hindu Dharma. The love of Radha and Krishna is rooted in allegory. Radha is the personification of the devorted minds of the devotee, of the souls searching for the embrace of the universal spirit. Radha is the individual and Krishna is the essence of life.
Here again the imagery is crafted within a male dominated framework. There is not a single goddess in Hindu pantheon who is treated as the universal lover and man is see as the yearning spirit. Thereby the popular ideology propagates the yearning of spiritual union only as that of a female and not male.
Society worships the union of Radha and Krishna - Radha who is a married woman and even elder to Krishna -only because they are Gods. The same prototype when applied in society faces all kinds of oppositions as this kind of a relationship is termed as adultery.
Caste and Gender
There is also a deep connection between caste and gender. Caste is a ubiquitous aspect of Hindu religion. And gender is an issue within the framework of caste which faces a considerable amount of discrimination . Tracy Pintchman says
‘ there is no empirically verifiable biological basis for caste differentiation, whereas the biological realities of gender difference are obvious to all. But caste and gender tend to function socially in similar ways. Like caste, gender plays an important role in structuring social hierarchy in contemporary Indian culture, and both caste and gender have been invoked to legitimate inequitable distributions of wealth and power, differences in status, discrepancies in rights, divisions of labor, and hierarchical notions of inherent worth. ’
Perhaps one can even say that Gender is more fundamental than caste as a principle of hierarchy. And religion imposes certain measures on women to behave in a particular manner with respect to her role in a social set up. With each stage of her life she is expected to follow a set of rules which also have a significant connection with her sexuality.
Popular social codes with respect to Gender
Hinduism also lays down the dress code for a woman depending on her relationship with the man. When a girl attains puberty, indirectly meaning that she is now ready biologically to bear a child, she is required to dress as an elderly woman. Once she is married she needs to carry marks of her marital status. These symbols vary from region to region. For example in south she is expected to wear a thali (sacred thread), metti(toe rings); in Bengal she is required to wear bangles of ivory and lac, in parts of Himachal Pradesh she should wear a nose ring … there are no such rules for men in any religion. He is not ‘marked’ by society as the married one.
For widows each society again has a different code according to which the woman should detach herself from any ornamentation which adds to her physical beauty. She is divested of any ‘need’ to dress beautifully because it is believed that a woman should dress only for a man.
And these regulations for women are so much imbued n the psyche of a woman that she starts justifying them. In case any woman chooses to behave differently, she is marked as a deviant not only by men but by women as well.
Concept of Heaven and Hell
The Hindu society has been perpetuating these gender specific roles time and again. And this cycle of continuance has a deep connection with the concept of heaven and hell. It is believed in Hinduism that a son only is expected to perform the rites for the deceased so that the diceased can attain moksha(liberation). A girl is not even allowed to visit the burial ground of the dead person. This importance given to a mail child not only has connection to the death but also to birth . A son is the one who actually carries the lineage forward, not the daughter because in Hindu society it is indoctrinated in the mind of everyone that the girl does not belong to the father’s family but to the future family of her husband . Hence the seeds of separation are sown at the very beginning. Due to this belief it becomes imperative for a woman to bear a mail child and if she fails to do so she is ostracized by the society physically, and mentally.
Islam and Christianity
Similar dichotomies between deification of women and the status of women is society can be seen in Islam and Christianity as well. Many of the resurgent pre-Islamic cultural practices that have tragically come to be associated with Islam, such as forced marriages, female genital mutilation, bridal (as opposed to groom-paid) dowries, honor killings and the criminalization of rape victims, only resurfaced following the disruption caused by colonialism and the resulting disconnect between the common Muslims and their sources of knowledge. But even today majority of Muslim women are expected to wear burqa. There are no such dress codes for men. But surprisingly writers like Ben Adam validate this practice by saying that
‘ The Muslim woman who wears her hijab (meaning "to veil, to cover , to screen, to shelter"), declares her faith in humility and servitude before God. Only those given divine sanction - her immediate family and other believing women - may view her bodily beauty. In effect, she is saying: ‘Judge me for my faith, not my body - I give you no other choice.’ When faithfully implemented, as it was by its earliest adherents, Islam offers women the freedom, dignity, justice and protection that have long remained out of their reach . As for the veiled Muslim celebrating her womanhood, she is but a reflection of chastity, humility and dignity, a mirror of her devotion to and belief in God - factors which liberate, not subjugate - and for this she can expect a great reward. ’
But there are no such veils for men. Does that mean they are no devout ? does it mean that they lack in humility, dignity or devotion ?
In Christianity Mother Mary is worshipped as Virgin Mary. Why Virgin.. because female sexuality is seen as some kind of a taboo, a disgrace.. . The very process of creation is seen as an offence or wrongdoing and this basic need of the human being is always to be kept under control.
The account of the creation of Eve from Adam's rib in Genesis 2:18-25, for example, has often been invoked as evidence that women are inferior to men by nature and by divine decree. Different writers have pointed out that creation of woman from Adam's rib has been interpreted in the most literal sense for thousands of years to denote the God-given inferiority of woman. The creation of Eve from Adam's rib in Genesis echoes the male-as-container, female-as-contained imagery that is similar to the one in the Puranas. Aristotle proclaimed a similar understanding of procreation portraying the female womb as "merely the passive incubators of the male seed" that is the real source of life .
Conclusion
Hence, gender associations at play in Puranic cosmogonies and more generally in Hindu culture are not unique but exemplify much more widespread biases. Religion is a path to the divine but in society it is treated as a medium of power play which gets predominantly expressed through gender definitions.
Unless woman is treated as an equal to man no ritual, no custom, no rite can emancipate the human being to the level of spiritual being.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Adam, Ben 2006 . The Veil Unveiled: The True Status of Women in Islam available at www.Quran.nu
2. Banerji , Shyam. 2003. Hindu gods and temples, I.K. International Pvt Ltd. New Delhi
3. Website referred : www. Manushi.org
Subscribe to:
Comments (Atom)